This twenty-first article of the mathematical journey through open source, demonstrates the Laplace transforms through Maxima.
In higher mathematics, transforms play an important role. A transform is mathematical logic to transform or convert a mathematical expression into another mathematical expression, typically from one domain to another. Laplace and Fourier are two very common examples, transforming from time domain to frequency domain. In general, such transforms have their corresponding inverse transforms. And this combination of direct and inverse transforms is very powerful in solving many real life engineering problems. Focus of this article is Laplace and its inverse transform, along with some problem solving highlights.
Laplace transform
Mathematically, Laplace transform F(s) of a function f(t) is defined as follows:
where t represents time and s represents complex angular frequency.
To demonstrate it, let’s take a simple example of f(t) = 1. Substituting and integrating, we get F(s) = 1/s. Maxima has the function laplace() to do the same. In fact, with that, we can choose to let our variables t and s be anything else as well. But, as per our mathematical notations, preserving them as t and s would be the most appropriate. Let’s start with some basic Laplace transforms:
(Note that string() has been used to just flatten the expression)
$ maxima -q
(%i1) string(laplace(1, t, s));
(%o1) 1/s
(%i2) string(laplace(t, t, s));
(%o2) 1/s^2
(%i3) string(laplace(t^2, t, s));
(%o3) 2/s^3
(%i4) string(laplace(t+1, t, s));
(%o4) 1/s+1/s^2
(%i5) string(laplace(t^n, t, s));
Is n + 1 positive, negative, or zero?
p; /* Our input */
(%o5) gamma(n+1)*s^(-n-1)
(%i6) string(laplace(t^n, t, s));
Is n + 1 positive, negative, or zero?
n; /* Our input */
(%o6) gamma_incomplete(n+1,0)*s^(-n-1)
(%i7) string(laplace(t^n, t, s));
Is n + 1 positive, negative, or zero?
z; /* Our input, making it non-solvable */
(%o7) 'laplace(t^n,t,s)
(%i8) string(laplace(1/t, t, s)); /* Non-solvable */
(%o8) 'laplace(1/t,t,s)
(%i9) string(laplace(1/t^2, t, s)); /* Non-solvable */
(%o9) 'laplace(1/t^2,t,s)
(%i10) quit();
Note that, in the above examples, the expression is preserved as is, in case of non-solvability.
laplace() is designed to understand various symbolic functions, such as sin(), cos(), sinh(), cosh(), log(), exp(), delta(), erf(). delta() is Dirac delta function, and erf() is the error function – others being the usual mathematical functions.
$ maxima -q
(%i1) string(laplace(sin(t), t, s));
(%o1) 1/(s^2+1)
(%i2) string(laplace(sin(w*t), t, s));
(%o2) w/(w^2+s^2)
(%i3) string(laplace(cos(t), t, s));
(%o3) s/(s^2+1)
(%i4) string(laplace(cos(w*t), t, s));
(%o4) s/(w^2+s^2)
(%i5) string(laplace(sinh(t), t, s));
(%o5) 1/(s^2-1)
(%i6) string(laplace(sinh(w*t), t, s));
(%o6) -w/(w^2-s^2)
(%i7) string(laplace(cosh(t), t, s));
(%o7) s/(s^2-1)
(%i8) string(laplace(cosh(w*t), t, s));
(%o8) -s/(w^2-s^2)
(%i9) string(laplace(log(t), t, s));
(%o9) (-log(s)-%gamma)/s
(%i10) string(laplace(exp(t), t, s));
(%o10) 1/(s-1)
(%i11) string(laplace(delta(t), t, s));
(%o11) 1
(%i12) string(laplace(erf(t), t, s));
(%o12) %e^(s^2/4)*(1-erf(s/2))/s
(%i13) quit();
Interpreting the transform
A Laplace transform is typically a fractional expression consisting of a numerator and a denominator. Solving the denominator by equating it to zero, gives the various complex frequencies associated with the original function. These are called the poles of the function. For example, the Laplace transform of sin(w * t) is w/(s^2 + w^2), where the denominator is s^2 + w^2. Equating that to zero and solving it, gives complex frequency s = +iw, -iw; thus indicating that the frequency of the original expression sin(w * t) is w, which indeed is w. Here goes few demonstrations for the same:
$ maxima -q
(%i1) string(laplace(sin(w*t), t, s));
(%o1) w/(w^2+s^2)
(%i2) string(denom(laplace(sin(w*t), t, s))); /* The Denominator */
(%o2) w^2+s^2
(%i3) string(solve(denom(laplace(sin(w*t), t, s)), s)); /* The Poles */
(%o3) [s = -%i*w,s = %i*w]
(%i4) string(solve(denom(laplace(sinh(w*t), t, s)), s));
(%o4) [s = -w,s = w]
(%i5) string(solve(denom(laplace(cos(w*t), t, s)), s));
(%o5) [s = -%i*w,s = %i*w]
(%i6) string(solve(denom(laplace(cosh(w*t), t, s)), s));
(%o6) [s = -w,s = w]
(%i7) string(solve(denom(laplace(exp(w*t), t, s)), s));
(%o7) [s = w]
(%i8) string(solve(denom(laplace(log(w*t), t, s)), s));
(%o8) [s = 0]
(%i9) string(solve(denom(laplace(delta(w*t), t, s)), s));
(%o9) []
(%i10) string(solve(denom(laplace(erf(w*t), t, s)), s));
(%o10) [s = 0]
(%i11) quit();
Involved Laplace transforms
laplace() also understands derivative() / diff(), integrate(), sum(), and ilt() – the inverse Laplace transform. Here are some interesting transforms showing the same:
$ maxima -q
(%i1) laplace(f(t), t, s);
(%o1) laplace(f(t), t, s)
(%i2) string(laplace(derivative(f(t), t), t, s));
(%o2) s*'laplace(f(t),t,s)-f(0)
(%i3) string(laplace(integrate(f(x), x, 0, t), t, s));
(%o3) 'laplace(f(t),t,s)/s
(%i4) string(laplace(derivative(sin(t), t), t, s));
(%o4) s/(s^2+1)
(%i5) string(laplace(integrate(sin(t), t), t, s));
(%o5) -s/(s^2+1)
(%i6) string(sum(t^i, i, 0, 5));
(%o6) t^5+t^4+t^3+t^2+t+1
(%i7) string(laplace(sum(t^i, i, 0, 5), t, s));
(%o7) 1/s+1/s^2+2/s^3+6/s^4+24/s^5+120/s^6
(%i8) string(laplace(ilt(1/s, s, t), t, s));
(%o8) 1/s
(%i9) quit();
Note the usage of ilt() – inverse Laplace transform in the %i8 of above example. Calling laplace() and ilt() one after the other cancels their effect – that is what is meant by inverse. Let’s look into some common inverse Laplace transforms.
Inverse Laplace transforms
$ maxima -q
(%i1) string(ilt(1/s, s, t));
(%o1) 1
(%i2) string(ilt(1/s^2, s, t));
(%o2) t
(%i3) string(ilt(1/s^3, s, t));
(%o3) t^2/2
(%i4) string(ilt(1/s^4, s, t));
(%o4) t^3/6
(%i5) string(ilt(1/s^5, s, t));
(%o5) t^4/24
(%i6) string(ilt(1/s^10, s, t));
(%o6) t^9/362880
(%i7) string(ilt(1/s^100, s, t));
(%o7) t^99/9332621544394415268169923885626670049071596826438162146859296389521759999
3229915608941463976156518286253697920827223758251185210916864000000000000000
0000000
(%i8) string(ilt(1/(s-a), s, t));
(%o8) %e^(a*t)
(%i9) string(ilt(1/(s^2-a^2), s, t));
(%o9) %e^(a*t)/(2*a)-%e^-(a*t)/(2*a)
(%i10) string(ilt(s/(s^2-a^2), s, t));
(%o10) %e^(a*t)/2+%e^-(a*t)/2
(%i11) string(ilt(1/(s^2+a^2), s, t));
Is a zero or nonzero?
n; /* Our input */
(%o11) sin(a*t)/a
(%i12) string(ilt(s/(s^2+a^2), s, t));
Is a zero or nonzero?
n; /* Our input */
(%o12) cos(a*t)
(%i13) assume(a < 0) or assume(a > 0)$
(%i14) string(ilt(1/(s^2+a^2), s, t));
(%o14) sin(a*t)/a
(%i15) string(ilt(s/(s^2+a^2), s, t));
(%o15) cos(a*t)
(%i16) string(ilt((s^2+s+1)/(s^3+s^2+s+1), s, t));
(%o16) sin(t)/2+cos(t)/2+%e^-t/2
(%i17) string(laplace(sin(t)/2+cos(t)/2+%e^-t/2, t, s));
(%o17) s/(2*(s^2+1))+1/(2*(s^2+1))+1/(2*(s+1))
(%i18) string(rat(laplace(sin(t)/2+cos(t)/2+%e^-t/2, t, s)));
(%o18) (s^2+s+1)/(s^3+s^2+s+1)
(%i19) quit();
Observe that if we take the Laplace transform of the above %o outputs, they would give back the expressions, which are input to ilt() of the corresponding %i’s. %i18 specifically shows one such example. It does laplace() of the output at %o16, giving back the expression, which was input to ilt() of %i16.
Solving differential and integral equations
Now, with these insights, we can easily solve many interesting and otherwise complex problems. One of them is solving differential equations. Let’s take a simple example of solving f'(t) + f(t) = e^t, where f(0) = 0. First we take the Laplace transform of the equation. Then substitute the value for f(0), and simplify to obtain the Laplace of f(t), i.e. F(s). And, then finally compute the inverse Laplace transform of F(s), to get the solution for f(t).
$ maxima -q
(%i1) string(laplace(diff(f(t), t) + f(t) = exp(t), t, s));
(%o1) s*'laplace(f(t),t,s)+'laplace(f(t),t,s)-f(0) = 1/(s-1)
Substituting f(0) as 0, and simplifying we get, laplace(f(t),t,s) = 1/((s-1)*(s+1)), for which we do an inverse Laplace transform:
(%i2) string(ilt(1/((s-1)*(s+1)), s, t));
(%o2) %e^t/2-%e^-t/2
(%i3) quit();
Thus, giving f(t) = (e^t – e^-t) / 2, i.e. sinh(t), which definitely satisfies the given differential equation.
Similarly, we can solve equations with integrals. And, why only integrals – rather equations with both differentials and integrals. Such equations come very often in solving for electrical circuits with resistors, capacitors, and inductors. Let’s again take a simple example to demonstrate the fact. Say, we have 1 ohm resistor, 1 farad capacitor, and 1 henry inductor in series being powered by a sinusoidal voltage source of frequency w. What would be the current in the circuit, assuming it to be zero at t = 0? It would yield the following equation: R * i(t) + 1/C * ∫ i(t) dt + L * di(t)/dt = sin(w*t), where R = 1, C = 1, L =1.
So, the equation simplifies to i(t) + ∫ i(t) dt + di(t)/dt = sin(w*t). Now, following the procedure as described above, we do the following steps:
$ maxima -q
(%i1) string(laplace(i(t) + integrate(i(x), x, 0, t) + diff(i(t), t) = sin(w*t),
t, s));
(%o1) s*'laplace(i(t),t,s)+'laplace(i(t),t,s)/s+'laplace(i(t),t,s)-i(0) = w/(w^2+s^2)
Substituting i(0) as 0, and simplifying, we get laplace(i(t), t, s) = w/((w^2+s^2)*(s+1/s+1)). Solving that by inverse Laplace transform, we very easily get the complex expression for i(t) as follows:
(%i2) string(ilt(w/((w^2+s^2)*(s+1/s+1)), s, t));
Is w zero or nonzero?
n; /* Our input: Non-zero frequency */
(%o2) w^2*sin(t*w)/(w^4-w^2+1)-(w^3-w)*cos(t*w)/(w^4-w^2+1)+%e^-(t/2)*
(sin(sqrt(3)*t/2)*(-(w^3-w)/(w^4-w^2+1)-2*w/(w^4-w^2+1))/sqrt(3)+
cos(sqrt(3)*t/2)*(w^3-w)/(w^4-w^2+1))
(%i3) quit();
The author is a hobbyist in open source hardware and software, with a passion for mathematics, and philosopher in thoughts. A gold medallist from the Indian Institute of Science, Linux, mathematics and knowledge sharing are few of his passions. He experiments with Linux and embedded systems to share his learnings through his weekend workshops. Learn more about him and his experiments at https://sysplay.in.
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